Hey there, budding chemists! 🧪 If you’ve ever found yourself puzzled by a chemistry concept, you’re exactly where you need to be. We’ve gathered all the frequently asked questions you might have and broken them down in a way that’s easy to grasp. Whether you’re just starting out or tackling the more complex stuff, this page is your go-to resource for all things Chemistry in 10th grade. Let’s dive in and make those reactions and equations simple and fun!
All Chemistry FAQs
Detergents do not react with calcium and magnesium ions in hard water, so they do not form scum. This makes them more effective cleaners in areas with hard water.
A micelle is a spherical structure formed by soap or detergent molecules, with hydrophobic tails trapping grease and hydrophilic heads interacting with water. This allows dirt to be washed away easily.
In hard water, calcium and magnesium ions react with soap molecules to form an insoluble precipitate called scum, which reduces the soap’s effectiveness.
Esterification reactions produce esters, which have pleasant fragrances and are widely used in the perfume and food industries as flavoring agents.
When ethanol reacts with sodium, it forms sodium ethoxide and hydrogen gas. This reaction shows ethanol’s weakly acidic properties.
Ethanol is a renewable resource, and its combustion produces fewer pollutants compared to fossil fuels, making it an eco-friendly alternative for fuel.
Ethanol (
) is oxidized to form ethanoic acid (
) when treated with an oxidizing agent such as potassium dichromate or potassium permanganate.
In an addition reaction, new atoms are added to a compound (typically across double or triple bonds in unsaturated hydrocarbons). In a substitution reaction, one atom (usually hydrogen) is replaced by another atom, such as a halogen.
Hydrocarbons burn in oxygen during combustion, producing carbon dioxide, water, and energy in the form of heat and light. The carbon in the compound reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide, while hydrogen forms water.
Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) contain only single bonds between carbon atoms, while unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes and alkynes) contain double or triple bonds.
Catenation allows carbon to form long chains, branched chains, and rings, which are the basis for many organic compounds found in nature and industry.
Carbon’s versatility arises from its ability to form stable covalent bonds with itself and other elements. Its tetravalency and capacity for catenation lead to an immense variety of compounds.
A single bond involves sharing one pair of electrons, a double bond involves two pairs, and a triple bond involves three pairs of electrons shared between two atoms.
A covalent bond is formed when two atoms share a pair of electrons, allowing both atoms to achieve a stable electron configuration.
Carbon has four electrons in its outermost shell, and it is energetically unfavorable for it to either gain or lose four electrons to form an ion. Therefore, carbon shares electrons and forms covalent bonds.
Soaps are natural salts of fatty acids, while detergents are synthetic and work better in hard water.
Alkanes have single bonds between carbon atoms, alkenes have double bonds, and alkynes have triple bonds.
Carbon’s tetravalency and catenation properties allow it to form a wide variety of compounds with different elements.
Anodizing increases the thickness of the oxide layer on metals like aluminum, protecting the metal from further oxidation and corrosion.
Zinc is more reactive than iron. When it is used to coat iron, it corrodes first, protecting the iron from rusting. This process is known as galvanization.
Iron is reactive and combines with oxygen and water to form rust. Gold is an unreactive metal, and it does not react with oxygen, even at high temperatures.
An amphoteric oxide is a metal oxide that can react with both acids and bases to form salts and water. Examples include aluminum oxide (
) and zinc oxide (
).
Copper sulfate loses its water of crystallization upon heating, turning from blue (hydrated form) to white (anhydrous form).
Water of crystallization refers to water molecules that are chemically bonded within the structure of a salt.
Example: Copper sulfate pentahydrate (
).
A neutral salt is formed from the reaction of a strong acid and a strong base, with a pH close to 7.
Example: Sodium chloride (
).
Salts are ionic compounds formed when an acid reacts with a base, typically producing salt and water.
Soil pH affects the availability of nutrients. If the pH is too acidic or too alkaline, plants may not be able to absorb the nutrients they need to grow.
Pure water has a pH of 7, which is neutral.
A universal indicator changes color depending on the pH of the solution, providing a visual way to determine whether the solution is acidic, neutral, or basic.
Strong acids have a pH close to 0 (e.g., hydrochloric acid).
The pH scale measures the concentration of hydrogen ions (
) in a solution, determining whether the solution is acidic, neutral, or basic.
Yes, acids and bases react in a neutralization reaction to form salt and water, canceling each other’s properties.
Both acids and bases dissociate into ions ( in acids and 
in bases), which allows them to conduct electricity.
All bases release hydroxide ions () when dissolved in water and turn red litmus paper blue.
All acids release hydrogen ions () when dissolved in water and turn blue litmus paper red.
Carbon dioxide turns limewater milky due to the formation of calcium carbonate.
Indicators change color in the presence of an acid or a base, helping to identify whether a solution is acidic or basic.
Acids donate hydrogen ions (
) in water. When they react with metals, the hydrogen ions are reduced to hydrogen gas.
Antacids neutralize excess stomach acid by reacting with it to form salt and water.
pH is used to maintain soil quality, ensure safe drinking water, and manage health through the proper use of antacids.
Acids release hydrogen ions (
), which react with litmus, causing it to turn red.
A neutralization reaction is when an acid reacts with a base to form salt and water.
Example: 
The Tyndall effect is the scattering of light by particles in a mixture. It occurs in suspensions due to the larger size of their particles, which scatter light.
Yes, the solid particles in a suspension can be separated by filtration, unlike solutions where the solute is dissolved.
In a suspension, the particles are large and settle over time, while in a solution, the solute is completely dissolved and does not settle out.
Stabilizing agents like surfactants or thickeners are added to prevent the solid particles from settling out too quickly.
Common examples include sand in water, muddy water, paint, and certain medicines like antacids.
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which solid particles are dispersed in a liquid or gas but do not dissolve. Over time, the solid particles settle out if left undisturbed.
Yes, chemical formulas can represent ions, such as NH4+ for the ammonium ion.
Identify the elements, balance the charges using valency, and use parentheses for polyatomic ions.
The main types include molecular formula, empirical formula, and structural formula.
Chemical formulas help understand the composition of compounds, write chemical equations, and represent ions and radicals.
A chemical formula is a symbolic representation that indicates the elements in a compound and the ratio of atoms.
To determine the formula of an ionic compound, balance the charges of the cations (positive ions) and anions (negative ions) so that the overall charge of the compound is neutral.
The empirical formula gives the simplest ratio of atoms in a compound, while the molecular formula gives the actual number of atoms in a molecule of the compound.
A chemical formula represents the composition of a single compound, whereas a chemical equation represents a chemical reaction, showing how reactants are converted into products.
Noble gases have a full valence shell of electrons, which makes them highly stable and unreactive compared to other elements.
Rare earth elements mostly comprise the lanthanide series, which are key components in various electronic devices and are known for their magnetic and luminescent properties.
While Mendeleev’s table was organized by increasing atomic mass, the modern table is organized by increasing atomic number, which resolves many of the inconsistencies in the earlier arrangements.
Moseley’s discovery established the atomic number as the basis for organizing the periodic table, leading to a clearer and more accurate understanding of element properties and their relationships.
The modern periodic table helps predict the chemical behavior of elements, organize elements with similar properties, and guide the discovery of new elements. It is a critical tool for chemists.
As you move across a period, the number of protons increases, which increases the nuclear charge. This pulls the electrons closer to the nucleus, reducing the atomic radius.
Periods are horizontal rows, and groups are vertical columns. Elements in the same period have the same number of electron shells, while elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons.
The periodic law states that the properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic numbers. This means that elements show recurring patterns in their properties when arranged by atomic number.
Elements are arranged in increasing order of their atomic number (number of protons). This arrangement leads to periodic trends in properties such as atomic radius, ionization energy, and electronegativity.
Careers in chemistry range from research and development, pharmaceuticals, environmental science, and academia to roles in government and private sectors focusing on chemical engineering, toxicology, and more.
Chemistry affects everyday life in numerous ways, including food preparation, healthcare, cleaning, and environmental management.
The main branches of chemistry include organic, inorganic, physical, analytical, and biochemistry.
Chemistry is known as the central science because it connects physics with other natural sciences, such as biology and environmental science, bridging various disciplines to provide a full understanding of the natural world.
Chemistry is the science of studying substances, focusing on how they interact, combine, and change to form new materials.
Ionization isomerism occurs when compounds give different ions in solution despite having the same composition.
Enantiomers are optical isomers that are non-superimposable mirror images, differing in their optical activity.
Stereoisomerism occurs when compounds have the same formula but different spatial arrangements of atoms.
Structural isomerism occurs when atoms and functional groups are connected differently.
The main types are structural isomerism and stereoisomerism.
Isomerism is when compounds with the same chemical formula have different structures or arrangements of atoms.
Forests provide clean air, help maintain ecological balance, and are a source of many resources. They need to be conserved to prevent deforestation and environmental degradation.
Only 2% of Earth’s water is freshwater, which is essential for drinking, agriculture, and other uses. Conservation efforts are important to protect this limited resource.
Clean air is essential for the health and survival of plants, animals, and humans. Reducing air pollution helps protect this vital resource.
Renewable resources can be replenished and are available in infinite quantities, like water and wind. Non-renewable resources are limited and cannot be replenished once consumed, like fossil fuels and minerals.
Natural resources are materials or substances that occur naturally in the environment and are not made by humans. Examples include air, water, soil, plants, and minerals.
Carbohydrates break down to release energy, providing fuel for various bodily functions and activities.
Common sources include potatoes, maize, milk, popcorn, and bread.
Types include monosaccharides (single unit), disaccharides (two units), and polysaccharides (many units).
Carbohydrates are classified based on their structures into simple carbohydrates (sugars) and complex carbohydrates (starch, cellulose).
The general formula is Cx(H2O)y, originally thought to be hydrates of carbon.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds found in living tissues and foods, breaking down to release energy. They include sugars, starch, and cellulose.
Acids are used in food preservation, batteries, and soft drinks. Bases are used in soap making, bleaching powder, and antacids.
Conjugate acids and bases are pairs of substances that differ by one proton. An acid becomes its conjugate base after donating a proton, and a base becomes its conjugate acid after accepting a proton.
Common acids: Citric acid (in citrus fruits), acetic acid (in vinegar), lactic acid (in sour milk).
Common bases: Sodium hydroxide (in soap), calcium hydroxide (in bleaching powder), magnesium hydroxide (in antacids).
The pH scale measures the acidity or basicity of a substance, ranging from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very basic).
Acids taste sour and turn blue litmus paper red, while bases taste bitter, feel slippery, and turn red litmus paper blue.
Acids are substances that donate hydrogen ions (H+), and bases are substances that accept hydrogen ions.
The hydrogen spectrum problem refers to the fact that Rutherford’s model could not explain why hydrogen atoms emit light at specific wavelengths, forming a series of discrete spectral lines. This was later explained by Bohr’s model using quantum theory.
According to classical physics, orbiting electrons should continuously emit energy and lose speed, eventually collapsing into the nucleus. This would make atoms unstable, which contradicts the observed stability of matter.
Rutherford’s model laid the groundwork for future atomic theories by introducing the concept of a nucleus. It was later refined by Niels Bohr, who incorporated quantum theory to explain the stability of atoms and the hydrogen spectrum.
The nucleus is important because it contains almost all the mass of the atom and the positive charge, which influences the behavior and arrangement of the electrons.
Rutherford developed his model based on the gold foil experiment conducted in 1909. This experiment involves bombarding a thin gold foil with alpha particles and observing their scattering patterns.
Rutherford’s atomic model, also known as the nuclear atom or planetary model, describes the atom as having a small, dense nucleus at the center, containing all the positive charge, with electrons orbiting around it, similar to how planets orbit the sun.
The order in electronic configurations follows the Aufbau principle, which states that electrons occupy the lowest energy orbitals first. This order determines the chemical properties and reactivity of the elements.
The subshell labels (s, p, d, f) represent different types of atomic orbitals that vary in shape and energy levels. Each subshell can hold a different maximum number of electrons: s (2), p (6), d (10), and f (14).
The electronic configuration can be written using the nearest noble gas as a prefix. For example, the electronic configuration of sodium (Na) can be written as [Ne] 3s1, where [Ne] represents the configuration of neon.
The electronic configuration of an element describes the distribution of electrons in its atomic orbitals. It is written using the subshell labels (s, p, d, f) and the number of electrons in each subshell as superscripts.
A reaction where oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously. Example: Copper oxide reacting with hydrogen.
A reaction where two or more substances combine to form a compound. Example: Magnesium burning in oxygen.
A reaction where a compound breaks down into simpler substances. Example: Electrolysis of water.
A chemical reaction is a process where reactants undergo chemical changes to form products.
A chemical reaction is a process where reactants undergo chemical changes to form products.
A chromatogram is a recorded plot showing the separation of components in chromatography based on their retention times.
Chromatography separates, isolates, and purifies proteins from complex mixtures, essential in protein purification strategies.
Differential extraction separates organic compounds from an aqueous solution using an immiscible organic solvent.
The main types are adsorption chromatography, thin layer chromatography, column chromatography, and partition chromatography.
Chromatography is a technique for separating, purifying, and testing compounds by using a stationary phase and a mobile phase.
Hybridization helps predict the shape and bond angles of molecules, making it easier to understand molecular geometry and bonding properties.
Yes, fully filled orbitals with slightly different energies can participate in hybridization, along with half-filled orbitals.
sp3 hybridization occurs when one s and three p orbitals mix to form four sp3 hybrid orbitals, resulting in a tetrahedral shape with 109.5° bond angles. Examples include CH4 and C2H6.
sp2 hybridization involves the mixing of one s and two p orbitals to form three sp2 hybrid orbitals, creating a trigonal planar shape with 120° bond angles. Examples include BF3 and C2H4.
sp hybridization occurs when one s and one p orbital mix to form two equivalent sp hybrid orbitals, resulting in a linear molecular shape with a 180° bond angle. Examples include BeF2 and C2H2.
There are several types of hybridization, including sp, sp2, sp3, sp3d, and sp3d2, each involving different combinations of s, p, and d orbitals.
Hybridization is the concept of mixing two atomic orbitals to create new hybrid orbitals with different energies and shapes, helping to explain atomic bonding and molecular geometry.
Yes, metals high in the reactivity series, such as sodium and calcium, can react with water to form hydroxides and release hydrogen gas.
Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series can react with acids to release hydrogen gas, while metals below hydrogen do not react with acids in this way.
Hydrogen is included in the reactivity series as a reference point. Metals above hydrogen can displace hydrogen from acids, while those below cannot.
Metals like platinum and gold are at the bottom of the reactivity series. These metals are very unreactive.
Metals like caesium, francium, and potassium are at the top of the reactivity series. These metals are highly reactive.
The reactivity series helps predict how metals will react with water, acids, and in single displacement reactions. It also indicates which metals can displace others from their compounds.
The reactivity series, also known as the activity series, is a list of metals arranged in order of their reactivity from highest to lowest.
Bohr’s model was eventually replaced by the quantum mechanical model, which provides a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of electron behavior and atomic structure, accounting for the principles of quantum mechanics and the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
Bohr’s model is based on a simple system with one electron (like hydrogen). Larger atoms have more complex electron interactions and energy levels, which Bohr’s model could not accurately describe.
Bohr’s model explained atomic stability by proposing that electrons move in fixed orbits with specific energy levels, preventing them from spiraling into the nucleus due to electrostatic attraction.
Electrons can move from a lower to a higher energy level by absorbing energy. Conversely, they can move from a higher to a lower energy level by releasing energy. This absorption or emission of energy often results in the emission of light at specific wavelengths, forming an atomic spectrum.
Quantum numbers in Bohr’s model represent the energy levels of the orbits around the nucleus. The number (n) indicates the orbit’s distance from the nucleus and its energy level, with n=1 being the closest and lowest energy level.
Rutherford’s model described the atom with a central nucleus and electrons around it but did not explain how electrons are arranged. Bohr introduced the concept of fixed orbits with specific energy levels, providing a clearer structure for the arrangement of electrons.
Bohr’s model, proposed by Niels Bohr in 1915, describes an atom with a positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons moving in fixed orbits (shells) around it. Each orbit has a specific energy level.
Soil contamination occurs when harmful substances reach high concentrations. It can be due to human activities like industrial waste disposal, agricultural chemicals, improper waste management, or natural processes.
Industrial pollution contributes by discharging waste into the soil, including chemicals from mining and manufacturing. These wastes can stay on the soil surface for long periods, degrading its quality and fertility.
Agricultural activities contribute through the excessive use of pesticides and insecticides. These chemicals can degrade soil quality, reduce fertility, and become pollutants when they seep into the soil and water.
Pesticides are substances used to control pests. They include herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides. While they target pests, they can unintentionally spread into the environment, causing soil and water pollution and posing health risks to humans.
Improper disposal of plastics, batteries, and other solid wastes leads to soil pollution. Harmful chemicals from these wastes can leach into the soil, making it toxic.
Acid rain occurs when pollutants in the air mix with rain and fall to the ground. It can dissolve essential soil nutrients and alter soil structure, making it unsuitable for agriculture.
Soil pollution is the presence of toxic chemicals in the soil at concentrations high enough to pose a risk to human health and the ecosystem. It is often caused by human activities that alter the natural soil composition.
The tertiary structure is the overall three-dimensional folding of a polypeptide chain, stabilized by various interactions like hydrogen bonds, electrostatic forces, disulfide linkages, and van der Waals forces.
Mutations in the DNA can change the amino acid sequence in the protein’s primary structure, potentially altering its folding and function, leading to genetic disorders.
The quaternary structure refers to the spatial arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains or subunits in a protein, resulting in a functional protein complex.
The tertiary structure is stabilized by hydrogen bonds, electrostatic forces, disulfide linkages, and van der Waals forces, which maintain the protein’s unique shape.
An α-helix is a right-handed spiral formed by hydrogen bonds between the -NH group of one amino acid and the -CO group of another. A β-pleated sheet consists of polypeptide chains laid side by side, bonded by hydrogen bonds, creating a sheet-like structure.
The secondary structures of proteins are local folded shapes within a polypeptide chain, such as α-helix and β-pleated sheet, stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the backbone atoms.
The amino acid sequence is crucial because it dictates the protein’s final three-dimensional shape, which is essential for its specific function. Any change in this sequence can alter the protein’s function.
The primary structure of a protein is the exact sequence of amino acids in its polypeptide chain. This sequence determines how the protein will fold and function.
Elements have different oxidation states due to their ability to lose or gain different numbers of electrons. This variability depends on the element’s electron configuration and its position in the periodic table.
Yes, many elements can have multiple oxidation states. Transition metals, in particular, often exhibit a variety of oxidation states due to their complex electron configurations.
Within a group, the number of valence electrons remains the same, so elements in the same group typically exhibit similar valency and oxidation states.
As you move from left to right across a period, the number of valence electrons increases from 1 to 8. The oxidation state can vary, usually increasing in a similar pattern until reaching group 14, then decreasing.
Valency is a specific case of oxidation state where the atom’s combining capacity is considered without assigning charges. Oxidation state, on the other hand, always involves the effective charge due to electron gain or loss.
For s-block and p-block elements, valency is typically the number of valence electrons or eight minus the number of valence electrons. For d-block and f-block elements, valency includes electrons in both valence and d or f orbitals.
The oxidation state of an atom indicates the number of electrons an atom has gained or lost. It represents the effective charge of an atom in a compound due to the transfer of electrons.
Valency is the measure of an element’s ability to combine with other elements. It represents the number of electrons an atom needs to gain, lose, or share to achieve a stable electron configuration.
The atomic mass in amu is numerically equivalent to the mass in grams of one mole of atoms of an element. For example, the atomic mass of carbon is 12 amu, so one mole of carbon atoms weighs 12 grams.
The atomic mass listed on the periodic table is an average based on natural isotope abundances and generally does not change. However, variations can occur in different samples due to isotopic enrichment or depletion.
Different isotopes of the same element have different numbers of neutrons, which results in different atomic masses. For instance, carbon-12 has six neutrons, while carbon-13 has seven neutrons.
The atomic mass unit (amu) is a standard unit of mass that quantifies the mass of atoms and subatomic particles. 1 amu is defined as one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
Atomic mass is usually not a whole number because it is a weighted average of all the isotopes of an element, each with a different mass and natural abundance.
The atomic number is the number of protons in an atom’s nucleus and defines the element. The atomic mass includes the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, representing the element’s isotopic composition.
The atomic mass of an element is the weighted average mass of all the isotopes of that element, measured in atomic mass units (amu). It accounts for both the mass and the relative abundance of each isotope.
The periodic table arranges elements in order of increasing atomic number, and elements with similar properties are grouped together. This arrangement helps predict an element’s reactivity, state of matter, and other chemical properties based on its position.
- Gases: Hydrogen (H), Helium (He), Nitrogen (N), Oxygen (O), Fluorine (F), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar).
- Liquids: None.
- Solids: Lithium (Li), Beryllium (Be), Boron (B), Carbon (C), Sodium (Na), Magnesium (Mg), Aluminum (Al), Silicon (Si), Phosphorus (P), Sulfur (S), Chlorine (Cl), Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca).
- Hydrogen (H): Fuel, hydrogenation processes.
- Helium (He): Balloons, cooling superconducting magnets.
- Carbon (C): Organic compounds, fuels.
- Oxygen (O): Breathing, combustion.
- Sodium (Na): Table salt (NaCl), street lights.
- Calcium (Ca): Bones, teeth, cement.
Noble gases are inert, non-reactive gases located in group 18 of the periodic table. Among the first 20 elements, the noble gases are Helium (He), Neon (Ne), and Argon (Ar).
The electronic configuration is determined by the number of electrons, which is equal to the atomic number. Electrons fill energy levels (shells) around the nucleus in a specific order, following the Aufbau principle, Hund’s rule, and the Pauli exclusion principle.
These elements are fundamental in chemistry and biology. They include essential elements for life, such as Oxygen (O) for respiration, Carbon (C) for organic compounds, and Calcium (Ca) for bones.
Element symbols are usually derived from their English names, often using the first one or two letters (e.g., H for Hydrogen, He for Helium). Some symbols are derived from Latin names (e.g., Au from Aurum for Gold, Fe from Ferrum for Iron).
The atomic number represents the number of protons in an atom’s nucleus. It determines the element’s identity and its position in the periodic table. The atomic number also equals the number of electrons in a neutral atom, influencing the element’s chemical properties.
The first 20 elements are Hydrogen (H), Helium (He), Lithium (Li), Beryllium (Be), Boron (B), Carbon (C), Nitrogen (N), Oxygen (O), Fluorine (F), Neon (Ne), Sodium (Na), Magnesium (Mg), Aluminum (Al), Silicon (Si), Phosphorus (P), Sulfur (S), Chlorine (Cl), Argon (Ar), Potassium (K), and Calcium (Ca).
Some element symbols are derived from their Latin names. For example, the symbol for sodium is Na, from the Latin word “Natrium.”
The heaviest naturally occurring element is Uranium (U), with an atomic number of 92.
Synthetic elements are those not found naturally and have been created artificially in laboratories. They generally have higher atomic numbers, such as Einsteinium (Es) and Fermium (Fm).
Elements are categorized as metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. Metals are typically shiny, conductive, and malleable. Nonmetals are diverse in appearance and properties, while metalloids have characteristics of both metals and nonmetals.
Groups are the vertical columns in the periodic table and indicate elements with similar chemical and physical properties. Periods are the horizontal rows and represent elements with increasing atomic numbers and different properties.
Elements are represented by one or two-letter symbols, which are often derived from their English or Latin names. For example, Hydrogen is represented as H, and Gold as Au (from Latin “Aurum”).
The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, which determines the chemical properties of an element and its place in the periodic table.
The periodic table provides each element’s atomic number, symbol, name, and atomic mass. It may also show other properties such as electron configuration and valency.
There are 118 confirmed elements in the periodic table.
The first periodic table was created by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, based on atomic masses and properties of elements.
The Periodic Table of Elements is a tabular arrangement of all known chemical elements, organized by increasing atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties.
Latest Chemistry Concepts Covered
Related Topics
- Acids and Bases
- Bonding In Carbon – The Covalent Bond
- Metals and Non-Metals
- Acids, Bases, and Salts
- Soaps And Detergents
- More About Salts
- Reactivity Series
- Carbon and its Compounds
- Differential Extraction Chromatography
- Rutherford’s Model of Atoms and its Limitations
- How Strong Are Acid Or Base Solutions?
- Modern Periodic Table
- Soil Pollution
- Some Important Carbon Compounds – Ethanol And Ethanoic Acid
- Classification of Carbohydrates and its Structure
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